Should Haiti become a protectorate of the USA?

How to arrest Haiti’s seemingly endless fall and begin to turn it around.

By Guerton Auguste

May, 2021

All of us who have Haiti constantly on our minds surely remember the tragic natural catastrophe that ravaged Haiti on January 12, 2010. On that cataclysmic day, a horrific earthquake of 7.0 magnitude (1) planted its epicenter in Léogane, a town located at 25 kilometers from the capital, Port-au-Prince. In a well-structured country, an earthquake that strikes 25 kilometers away from other centers of activity – especially your capital city – would have been considered a blessing to the distant towns. But because of that nation’s relatively high population density (414 per Km2 ) (2) and its lack of any modern infrastructure (3), an earthquake or even a mild hurricane landing anywhere on Haiti’s soil should predictably be viewed as a calamity, as 96% (4) of the population is exposed to the vagaries of nature, according to The World Bank.

With a population of nearly 12 million (5) spreading over a piece of real estate the size of Massachusetts (6), there is not much space for escape – especially given the socioeconomic conditions of that impoverished country. Obviously the population size itself is not the problem; it merely compounds the problem in a country where structural civil codes are scarcely enforced (7) to begin with; or where the civil codes compliance is left up to the good will of the construction’s owner or their architects. Clearly that is no way to run any country, let alone girding a country prone to natural disasters (8), to face their impact with resilience and continue to prosper.

Here we are almost 12 years later, not even all the debris from the damage of the 2010 earthquake have been cleared and disposed of. When I visited Haiti 3 years ago last month, the residual damages and “imprints” of the earthquake (9) could still be seen everywhere in the capital city – even on Boulevard Jn-Jacques Dessalines, the main artery of the capital, and all along Routes Nationales 1 and 2 toward Tabarre and Léogane – respectively. Get this: to this day, even the revered National Palace, our White House (10) – the seat of the government itself – is in shambles (11). There can be no greater emblem of a failed state than that.

So the people who are in charge of putting a roof over their countrymen’s heads and a floor under their feet cannot even do so for themselves and the nation’s principal structural symbol of sovereignty and dignity – The National Palace. And lately to compound the nightmare, citizen kidnappings perpetrated by wild criminal gangs, are taking place with impunity (12) throughout the capital city. Haiti cannot fall any lower (13)!

Yet all this failure and loss of opportunity to seize a new path for the country, were predictable to those of us who truly understand what Haiti’s problem is, and how to fix it.

In the aftermath of the earthquake – almost 12 years ago – in an open letter to President Obama (14), I told the president that the earthquake’s catastrophic damages (15) had “decapitated” (16) Haiti. I predicted in that letter that Haiti would not recover from the havoc without the United States’ hands-on involvement. In that same letter, I called on the President to declare Haiti a temporary protectorate of the US, and suggested that other benefactors of good will could join forces with the US to help shoulder the responsibility, and to provide political cover to deflect criticism from Peraltist Haitians (17) who still view America’s role in Haiti as a force for evil, due to America’s not so pristine record in Haiti’s affairs (18).

Today in the face of unceasing violence to a level never seen before, unfathomable corruption and incompetence in the public sector (19), I am again asking America – the country whose citizenship I am proud and grateful to hold for almost 40 years despite her shortcomings – to consider extending protectorate status to Haiti, to give Haiti the breathing space it needs to find its footing to place its affairs on solid, long-lasting institutional foundations.

I am also appealing to our congressional representatives in the Black Caucus, the Congressional Haiti Caucus (20), and our brothers and sisters in the black and brown communities of America to make Haiti their cause celèbre the same way they had helped liberate South Africa from Apartheid. Haiti – the birthplace of the Afro Civil Rights movement – needs your help today. In the same manner Haiti emboldened our ancestors everywhere in the world to rise up to demand their liberty, their descendants outside of Haiti are now being asked in return to rise up to come to her rescue.

Of course, I am also urging my white brethren in power, Senators Romney, Markey (21), Sanders, Leahy (22) Durbin (23), Merkley, Labor Secretary M. Walsh - Boston’s last mayor and a great friend of the Haitian-American community (24) – to join in, too. Haiti’s problems are not as difficult to solve as they appear, if we aim decisively at the root cause.

Indeed, I am saying this is fairly uncomplicated in comparison to other burdensome challenges we have faced as a people before, if we approach the task I am placing before our country with all the necessary compassion and cultural sensitivity the situation would demand; and if we create an atmosphere of mutual respect and service to the Haitian people.

It may seem sacrilegious or odd to some that I am calling for America to re-engage in Haiti’s affairs on Haitian Flag Day (25), the very day that celebrates Haiti’s sovereignty. To these folks, I respectfully respond: “What sovereignty!”

It is true that even in the midst of Haiti’s chaos, one must not be dismissive of the pride and joy Haitian Flag Day brings to Haitian communities everywhere around the world. However, given the rising level of our despair, there is no other way. Mind you, this is something that should have been set up 12 years ago after the 2010 earthquake. We have no more time to dither. We can no longer be blinded by ancestral emotions while the reality on the ground is: Haiti is crumbling(26); and we must bring relief to the poor and hopeless, now! Our (Haiti’s) version of “sovereignty” has not worked – neither for the poor and paradoxically nor for the rich(27).

Who, you may be asking, might rise in opposition to such a mission of mercy? Two groups come to mind: the aforementioned “Peraltists” living primarily in Haiti and those I call: “mind-our-own-business” Americans found on the libertarian right of the US political spectrum.

In the Peraltist “camp” are those who remember how their hero Charlemagne Massena Peralte (1886 –1919) (28) – a Haitian human rights activist and anti-American occupation warrior – was brutally killed by the US Marines in 1919 (29) at the age of 33 for rebelling against the American invasion and occupation of Haiti (30), which began in 1915. In their mind (and objectively), Peralte was extinguished merely for defending his people’s sovereignty.

Those I am naming the Peraltists here, do not appear to belong to any formal nationalist organization, (still in existence) I could uncover. I am applying the name to these folks solely on the basis of their emotional and patriotic attachment to the memory of Peralte. Professor Yveline Alexis – a scholar on Peralte – has described this phenomenon quite movingly in her dissertation, titled: Haiti fights back! in chapters 8 and 10 (31). Based on her research, she has made it abundantly clear that any attempt to erase the memory of Peralte in the minds of Haitians would be fruitless (32). Such effort would be tantamount to attempting to erase the memory of Abraham Lincoln from the minds of African-Americans and slavery Abolitionists. It will not happen!

Peralte was what we would call today a guerilla freedom fighter (33), if he were fighting on the side of America; or a bandit and terrorist if he were fighting in the defense of a people America was seeking to dominate. As you can imagine, the tag a controversial political leader receives is always in the eye of the beholder. And the tag that sticks in history depends on who is writing the history.

Charlemagne Peralte was no “terrorist” by any objective reading of history. The son of Rémi Massena Peralte, a retired Haitian army general and a member of Haiti’s parliament, the young Peralte was educated at one of Haiti’s finest educational institutions – St Louis de Gonzague. At the age of 29, he rose to become a commander in Haiti’s Revolutionary Army. He made himself an enemy of America in 1915 when US Marines presented themselves at the barrack under his command in Léogane to disarm him and his men and to take down the Haitian flag…an indignant Peralte thundered: “I only take orders from the president of Haiti.”

From the Haitian perspective, Peralte was our Mandela (or 2nd Toussaint Louverture (34)). Except, “our” Mandela never got the chance to transform into the global hero that he could have been had he succeeded in pushing America out of Haiti’s sovereign soil in 1919, and be widely known in history like the South African Mandela (35). Unlike the South-African hero, there were no noble American activists and powerful international leaders demanding Peralte’s freedom. There was no internet; there was no social media to bring a spotlight on his struggle.

Because no outside voice (the nascent NAACP excepted) (36) was raised in his defense and for his liberation as was the case for Nelson Mandela, Peralte’s life was cut short without due process (37) by the invading US forces. But no matter which side one takes with regard to Peralte’s actions in the midst of his armed insurrection against an invading foreign army, looking at the totality of the record, a fair verdict of history would suggest that Peralte was an unnecessary casualty of an unjust war of aggression initiated without provocation by the US against Haiti – a poor neighboring country.

This was then. Here is what I would say to Haitian Peraltists who would oppose a new involvement of America in our affairs, today. Your opposition to America’s involvement fails to appreciate the moment in history we are in. We are not in 1915; the America of 1919 when Peralte was callously assassinated, does not exist anymore. That America is gone – forever! Call me naïve, if you wish, but after 42 years living under America’s flag and countless hours – day and night – thinking about Haiti’s problems and observing its relations with its mighty neighbor, I know of what I speak.

By the way, America is already profoundly involved in Haiti’s affairs (38). It does no good to anyone to pretend otherwise. In reality what needs to end is this shadowy, manipulative involvement of the US in Haiti (39). The protectorate status is already in place – virtually.

But because it is not formalized, it is subject to all types of shenanigans to the detriment of Haiti and directly (or indirectly) to the detriment of America (40) itself. This is a lose-lose proposition. This covert Haitian leadership coercion operation (41) by the US (and France) hidden behind America’s overt, legitimate diplomatic operation has recently produced in 2011 and 2016 Haitian presidents like “Sweet Micky” Martelly – a pop musician, a foul-mouth of a person one can fairly call a bum without any hint of exaggeration, and Jovenel Moise – “the banana man”– the “winner” of the most recent, fraudulent election (42). With presidents like these, you don’t need earthquakes and other natural disasters.

In that so-called election, it is said that only a fraction of the electorate (21%) participated in the suffrage; and through widespread irregularities and generous ballot-stuffing by the party in power according to Jacqueline Charles of The Miami Herald (43), Jovenel Moise – a banana farmer and a puppet of Martelly, – was “elected” to be the current president of Haiti, to disastrous consequences.

All of this was predictable; all of it happened in Haiti under the supervision and approval of American emissaries (44) as Haiti essentially functions as a de facto protectorate of the US. This is the shadowy diplomatic environment an overt protectorate would seek to end.

Moreover, the Peraltists need to come to terms with demographic turnovers and diasporic changes (45) that have occurred on American soil in the last 40 years. America is no longer the land where a foreign policy grounded in white supremacy and imperialist arrogance can ever take root. This is now Obama’s, Biden’s, Kamala’s, Pelosi’s, Osaka’s and Fabiana Pierre-Louis’ (46) America – the last name though not in the same celebrity league as the others, is included nonetheless to provide a flavor (the Haitian flavor) of the New America.

This is the America of Black Lives Matter. And make no mistake, because of the social impact and political influence of the black diaspora in general, African-Americans and the political power of the Black Caucus (47) and their allies in particular, the rallying slogan of the BLM movement for equal treatment would be more accurate if it said: “BLME. Black Lives Matter – Everywhere.” And “everywhere” now includes Haiti (48) – unquestionably.

Indeed, we have arrived at a place in America where all of us of good will who have witnessed the mistreatment of colored people anywhere, have said: Enough! And insofar as Peralte was fighting against military aggression, political oppression and economic injustice, we are now all Peraltists.

I am convinced that Haitians whether in Haiti or in the diaspora would not rise in opposition to a just, benevolent intervention of America in Haiti, so long as it is guided by the virtues outlined above. We currently have no armed nationalist factions in Haiti to threaten American lives. Americans – whether civilian or military – have nothing to fear in Haiti, if they land there as nation builders and hope providers.

Furthermore, the way the proposed protectorate would be structured would not involve a heavy military presence as this would not be a conquest or restore-order operation. This intervention would be a mission of mercy fully blessed by the international community and more importantly, by the global Haitian Diaspora. I am proposing that America take the lead in this request for change of status with Canada and the Republic of Rwanda as associate partners.

The Canadians are needed because they are respected in Haiti and in the Haitian diaspora – even when one considers Canada’s usual acquiescence in America’s misconduct in Haiti (49). Still, they are viewed as more compassionate and gentler than Americans; and they have no imperialistic ambitions in Haiti. The francophonic cultural ties between the two countries would also help to foster better relations, and would serve the Protectorate well, as they would facilitate interactions among Canadians, local and diasporic Haitians in the Protectorate administration. Additionally, Haitians everywhere fondly remember the former Governor General of Canada, Michaelle Jean – Canada’s first black governor and first Haitian-Canadian to achieve that honor.

The Rwandans would be of assistance because they have recent experience with nation building, women empowerment and national reconciliation. They would help guide us toward – and assist us with – projects that have been successfully implemented in Rwanda. They would serve as powerful and inspiring African role models for all of us. I cannot wait to see their President Paul Kagame (50), land in Haiti to model for the Haitian people and for Haiti’s so-called leaders what leadership and putting-country-first look like.

Oh, what a glorious day it will be when all three leaders of this magnanimous mission I am proposing – President Joseph Robinette Biden, PM Justin Trudeau and President Paul Kagame, surrounded by the finest Afro-American and Haitian-American minds in the diaspora – would meet at a summit in Washington DC to launch this mission; or when the leaders are eventually received in Haiti to heros’ welcome to view the “Protectorate Corps” and to assess our progress in this project for restoration.

Obviously the full scope of the protectorate structure, organization and mission cannot be detailed here. But, hopefully my plan will receive a fair hearing among the political and intellectual elites whom we will indispensably need to bring this project to fruition. Suffice to say, success will hinge on all the good will America, the Haitian diaspora, and the international community can muster to provide Haiti and its people with the lift they need to take off and never look back.

To our brothers and sisters who would stand in opposition to this mission, I say this: “Suppose it was your neighborhood and a fire erupted next door to your house, what would you do?” You could react in a number of ways: you could say, 1) it is none of my business and do nothing; 2) I’d love to help but I’d rather sit back to protect my own house, in case the fire crosses over; 3) I’d love to help but this house has been in disrepair for so long, the owners deserve what they get; or 4) let me lend a hand because I am my neighbor’s keeper. The “house” in the case before us here is evidently a metaphor for Haiti.

I have no doubt that most Americans – even those on the right – would be in the 4th category, simply because it is the noble thing to do. But what I would hasten to add for those in the other categories is this: “it is also the practical thing to do.”

For better or for worse, Providence has placed the US in the same “neighborhood” with Haiti. Therefore whether we choose to or not, we are condemned to live together for eternity. And for those of us who profess to be of Christian faith, we will be called before the throne of judgment for the way we have treated our neighbor here on earth. So our choice to help or to not help has eternal consequences as well.

Furthermore, it is not as if we can pick up and move to a different neighborhood. This is the neighborhood – a neighborhood I call: Greater North America, when the Caribbean islands, just a few hundred miles off-shore, are correctly included.

Moreover, it is undeniable that the US had a significant role in the dilapidation of that “house,” to stretch the metaphor a bit further. And because we had some role in the degradation of the house, we have a moral obligation to provide some assistance for its rehabilitation.

I am not one of those critics who believe that America is solely responsible for every tragic event that has occurred in Haiti. I am fanatical about swatting this misconception down everywhere I go – sometimes to my interlocutor’s disapproval, outrage and consternation. This is a self-defeating posture I refuse to assume.

Here is what I believe though: I believe that all Haitians are responsible – including those of us in the diaspora here in the US and elsewhere, by our silence or neglect – for the disaster that Haiti is today. But, I also believe that America has not been a helpful neighbor in a progressive and preemptive way.

America has been the neighbor who would show up after the “house” has caught fire to offer blankets to survivors of the “fire” or to supply the cops (51) to secure the fire-ravaged house to prevent the ensuing looting. A neighbor like this, while well-meaning, is not that helpful. I am hereby asking America’s help to provide the fire code enforcers, the fire department and to help us lock up the arsonists and vandals and all those with a propensity for looting – either as a crime of opportunity or a profession. In Haiti, unfortunately, we have plenty of both.

And I can assure my skeptical American friends that this would not be another costly misadventure by the US. With the help of the international community and principally with the Haitians in the global diaspora, the funds needed for this mission would be miniscule – relatively speaking. It will be costlier in lives and fortune if we don’t intervene in a wholesome manner, now. The customary band-aid measures we have tried in the past will not work; uprooting corruption and incompetence and building strong institutions will. To do so, I am requesting a diasporic protectorate take-over of Haiti – facilitated by America, Rwanda and Canada. Short of that, nothing else will work as I warned 12 years ago. And we will be back here 12 years from now, if we don’t take action now.

In 2010, I proposed in my open letter to President Obama we come up with a mechanism of taxation on the Haitian-American diaspora to finance this reconstruction project. To some extent, a comparable mechanism of taxation is currently in existence in Haiti – except it is under the thumb of the Haitian government, whereas my proposed mechanism of “taxation” would have been under the control of the U.S. Treasury. We can do either and preferably both.

It is estimated that Haitians in the global diaspora remit between $3-4 billion to Haiti every year (52). This sum of money is a conservative estimate for sure, as some members of the diaspora go out of their way to find other means to transfer money to their families back home to avoid the “tax” imposed by the corrupt Haitian government. Nevertheless there are still millions of transfers posted from all over the world – especially from countries with large Haitian population such as America (687,000), Canada (93,480), Chile (150,000), France (100,000) and Brazil. The local agent I interviewed in Boston for this essay told me that the US-based company – of which he is a franchisee – makes about 800,000 transfers of funds per month. This number is not hard to grasp when you realize that the members of the diaspora who are living paycheck to paycheck, make transfers to their families in Haiti every week. Note that there are 5 major transfer companies – including Western Union – transferring money year round to Haiti from around the world.

Consider: the Haitian government and their cronies skim $1.50 from each transfer (53) – not as transfer fees mind you, but as a form of diasporic taxation. We are talking about hundreds of millions of dollars vanishing every year in the irreparably corrupt black hole that is the Haitian government, which scores 18 points out 100 in the Corruption Perception Index, according to Transparency.org (54). My point is this: we already have a large part of the resources to finance this project on our own dime. All we need is the technical assistance to set-up a corruption-free space in Haiti and the diplomatic cudgel or iron fists we may need to remove the knees of governmental crooks and civilian thugs off the Haitian people’s neck.

Our plan will propose to withdraw this “taxing” authority and the manipulation of remittance funds from the current dishonorable government and place such oversight under a corruption-free, totally transparent Protectorate Administrative System (PAS) led by competent diasporic Haitians, assisted by honest local technocrats. By the way, we could double or triple the $1.50 levy, and Haitians in the diaspora would gladly pay it based on my own informal survey at the aforementioned local money transfer agency, so long as the transferors are certain that the fruit of their arduous labor would be efficiently invested in the reconstruction of their cherished homeland.

This robbery of the Haitian people and the Haitian diaspora must come to an end, and the thieves put away. We have had enough! But we are powerless in this fight Mr. President, against this shameless, unrepentantly corrupt gang that runs down our native land. In collaboration with the diaspora, the US can write a new and more favorable chapter in the relationship between the US and Haiti. We should not spend one more nickel on the Haitian police force to maintain Haiti’s devious leaders in power, as we have done for years.

We can do this, Mr. President. We can give Haiti the gift of democracy, justice, equity and transparency. We need you to go to the rescue of your neighbor in need. We, in the diaspora, are eager to be on the front line of this mission. We cannot stand to see Haiti in this condition anymore. So for us, failure is not an option! Give us the task and hold us accountable. We cannot fail; we will not fail! We will not fail Haiti again, I promise you. In addition you, Mr. President, will have helped put Haiti on the path to prosperity and greatness forever. Haitians and friends of Haiti all over the globe would be eternally grateful for your leadership.

And in the same manner our country helped rebuild Europe and Japan after the Second World War, surely we can “Marshall” the will to rebuild a tiny little country just a few hundred miles away from our shore that is not ravaged by war, but by incompetence, indifference and corruption.

Let us not be silent anymore Mr. President, in the face of our neighbor’s despair. Let us show up in their moment of need before the house is fully consumed. But let us show up this time with the right help. So help us, God!

This writer, who has benefited much from America’s generosity, stands ready to assist in any way I can. I have the blueprint that will get Haiti out of this mess, if we can deploy its various facets under the protectorate umbrella. I have zero doubt that my plan will work with provision of sufficient technical and financial resources from the international community, with America and the Haitian diaspora leading the way. My dream is nothing less Mr. President, than to transform Haiti – the (former) Pearl of the Caribbean – into the “Black Pearl of the Americas.”

Oh, Yes we can!

Guerton “Babi” Auguste is a Haitian-American engineer living in the Boston area.

References

1. 2010 Haiti earthquake: Facts, FAQs, and how to help. World Vision[Online] https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2010-haiti-earthquake-facts.

2. Haiti population (live). worldometers. [Online] May 2021. https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/haiti-population/.

3. Haiti was ‘catastrophe waiting to happen’. cnn.com. [Online] http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/01/12/haiti.earthquake.infrastructure/index.html.

4. Haiti is extremely vulnerable to disasters. worldbank.org. [Online] https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/haiti/overview.

5. Haiti’s population in 2021. worldpopulationreview.com. [Online] https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/haiti-population.

6. State area measurements. US census_geographies. [Online] https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html.

7. Haiti’s next earthquake could be worse. www.govtech.com. [Online] https://www.govtech.com/em/disaster/haitis-next-earthquake-could-be-worse-than-devastating-2010-quake-.html.

8. Haiti: prone to natural disasters. ufondwa.org. [Online] https://www.ufondwa.org/history-natural-disasters-haiti/.

9. A lost decade: Haiti still struggles 10 years later. www.npr.org. [Online] https://www.npr.org/2020/01/12/794298546/a-lost-decade-haiti-still-struggles-to-recover-10-years-after-massive-earthquake.

10. Photo of National Palace in shambles 10 years later. www.thoughtco.com. [Online] https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/etXDE1ms9lMyLTxzWVY7B4xlhoI=/4619x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc():format(webp)/architecture-Haiti-Palace-115280125-crop-5b1b41670e23d900362b5fa9.jpg.

11. Martelly’s inauguration in earthquake-ruined palace. haitianphotos.com. [Online] http://www.haitianphotos.com/photos/haiti-national-palace-palais-national-3.html.

12. Surge of violence rattles Haiti. apnews.com. [Online] https://apnews.com/article/port-au-prince-kidnapping-violence-poverty-haiti-06ba2725c9639a532a69ac3c6645d916.

13. Scarred by unrest, Haiti sinks deeper! reuters.com. [Online] https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-economy-feature/scarred-by-unrest-haiti-sinks-deeper-into-poverty-idUSKBN20P1XK.

14. Open letter to Obama_Temporary protectorate status for Haiti. bostonhaitian.com. [Online] https://www.bostonhaitian.com/columns/2010/letter-obama-haiti-should-become-temporary-protectorate-us.

15. 2010 earthquake damage_Facts and figures. www.dec.org. [Online] https://www.dec.org.uk/article/haiti-earthquake-facts-and-figures.

16. Government “decapitated” due to human capital loss. rand.org. [Online] https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR304.html.

17. Interview with Yveline Alexis, scholar on Peralte. aaihs.org. [Online] https://www.aaihs.org/charlemagne-peralte-and-haitian-resistance-to-the-u-s-occupation-an-interview-with-yveline-alexis/.

18. Reflection on US occupation of Haiti. aaihs.org. [Online] https://www.aaihs.org/charlemagne-peralte-and-haitian-resistance-to-the-u-s-occupation-an-interview-with-yveline-alexis/.

19. Haiti events. hrw.org. [Online] https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/haiti#.

20. Congressional Haiti Caucus. haitilibre.com. [Online] https://www.haitilibre.com/en/news-33773-haiti-flash-formation-of-a-haiti-caucus-in-the-us-congress.html.

21. Sen. Markey visits Haiti to assess humanitarian response. markey.senate.gov. [Online] https://www.markey.senate.gov/news/press-releases/senator-markey-visits-haiti-to-assess-humanitarian-response-after-hurricane-matthew.

22. Sen. Leahy visits Haiti. leahy.senate.gov. [Online] https://www.leahy.senate.gov/press/photos/senator-leahys-trip-to-the-dominican-republic-and-haiti.

23. Sen. Durbin in Haiti to assess US assistance. durbin.senate.gov. [Online] https://www.durbin.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/durbin-in-haiti-to-assess-us-assistance-programs-five-years-after-devastating-earthquake-and-cross-border-issues-with-the-dominican-republic.

24. US Haitian Chamber of commerce letter to Mayor Walsh. martywalsh.org. [Online] https://www.martywalsh.org/2017/08/bostons-caribbean-community-backs-mayor-marty-walsh/.

25. Haitian Flag Day celebration_Boston. pbs.twimg.com. [Online] https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DAXehdwWsAE8IWG?format=jpg&name=900x900.

26. A decade of unkept promises. pulitzercenter.org. [Online] https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/ten-years-after-haitis-earthquake-decade-aftershocks-and-unkept-promises.

27. Haiti chaos causes hotels and tourism industry to close. thestkittsnevisobserver.com. [Online] https://www.thestkittsnevisobserver.com/haiti-chaos-hitting-tourism-hotels-close/.

28. Charlemagne Peralte bio. military.wikia.org. [Online] https://military.wikia.org/wiki/Charlemagne_P%C3%A9ralte.

29. The death of Charlemagne Peralte. bucknell.edu. [Online] https://occupationundead.scholar.bucknell.edu/2019/10/28/the-death-of-charlemagne-peralte/.

30. Yveline Alexis, PhD. Charlemagne Peralte’s rebellion against the US. scholarworks.umass.edu. [Online] https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI3461973/.

31. — . Haiti fights back! scholarworks.umass.edu. [Online] Rutgers University Press. Chpts. 9 & 10. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI3461973/.

32. Peralte_an iconic image of Haitian liberty. newyorker.com. [Online] https://www.newyorker.com/culture/photo-booth/haiti-u-s-occupation-charlemagne-peralte.

33. Freedom fighter or terrorist. e-ir.info. [Online] https://www.e-ir.info/2018/11/29/is-one-mans-terrorist-another-mans-freedom-fighter/.

34. Toussaint Louverture_1743–1803. blackpast.org. [Online] https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/louverture-toussaint-1743-1803/.

35. Nelson Mandela Biographical. nobelprize.org. [Online] https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1993/mandela/biographical/.

36. Weldon Johnson, NAACP President. Self-determining Haiti_Aug 28, 1920. hartford-hwp.com. [Online] http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/563.html.

37. Dalleo, Raphael. The death of Charlemagne Peralte. occupationundead.scholar.bucknell.edu. [Online] https://occupationundead.scholar.bucknell.edu/2019/10/28/the-death-of-charlemagne-peralte/.

38. Martin, Abby. Haiti’s century of US coups_Invasion & puppets. theanalysis.news. [Online] https://theanalysis.news/commentary/haitis-century-of-us-coups-invasions-puppets-abby-martin/.

39. Hillary Clinton and Martelly. https://www.haitilibre.com. [Online] https://www.haitilibre.com/en/news-2778-haiti-politic-hillary-clinton-had-lunch-with-michel-martelly.html.

40. Keeping neighboring countries in line. kgou.org. [Online] https://www.kgou.org/post/keeping-neighbors-line-what-cost-latin-america-s-invaded-nations.

41. US election rigging_in Haiti. wsws.org. [Online] https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2016/08/24/hait-a24.html.

42. Jovenel Moise “awarded” haitian presidency. therealnews.com. [Online] https://therealnews.com/mprescod0105election.

43. Charles, Jacqueline. Haiti’s elections deeply flawed. miamiherald.com. [Online] https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/haiti/article46196945.html.

44. US interference wins Haiti election in 2015. thehill.com. [Online] https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/foreign-policy/256679-haiti-us-interference-wins-elections.

45. US Haitian diaspora 1.2 mil as of 2018. migrationpolicy.org. [Online] https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/haitian-immigrants-united-states-2018#Diaspora.

46. Rutgers Law alumna_NJ Supreme Court judge. law.rutgers.edu. [Online] https://law.rutgers.edu/news/rutgers-law-alumna-fabiana-pierre-louis-becomes-first-black-woman-new-jersey-supreme-court.

47. Holmes, Steven. Black Caucus muscle reshapes Haiti policy. nytimes.com. [Online] https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/14/world/with-persuasion-and-muscle-black-caucus-reshapes-haiti-policy.html.

48. Haitians align with BLM movement. usatoday.com. [Online] https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/09/10/why-haitian-americans-brooklyn-have-aligned-black-lives-matter-column/5757831002/.

49. Canada backing dictatorial bully in Haiti. ricochet.media. [Online] https://ricochet.media/en/3507/why-is-canada-backing-a-dictatorial-bully-in-haiti.

50. Photo of Paul Kagame and daughter at White House. dailymail.co.uk. [Online] https://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2014/08/06/1407322236905_wps_30_WASHINGTON_DC_AUGUST_05_R.jpg.

51. US Military in Haiti 25 years ago. time.com. [Online] https://time.com/5682135/haiti-military-anniversary/.

52. Remittances to Haiti as of 2019. tradingeconomics.com. [Online] https://tradingeconomics.com/haiti/remittances.

53. Celestin V Martelly_ Haiti Remittances fraud. casetext.com. [Online] https://casetext.com/case/celestin-v-martelly-1.

54. Corruption perception index_Haiti. https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/haiti. [Online] https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/haiti.